Lords of the Scrolls analyzes ancient literary sources to show how biblical and gospel scribes borrowed and imitated themes from earlier literature to create heroic legends around Hebrew figures and Jesus. Comparisons between the Epic of Gilgamesh; Enuma Elish; Canaanite, Egyptian, and Greek legends; Homeric epics; the histories of Herodotus; and selected biblical and gospel passages reveal thematic and literary similarities. Tracing literary classics from the birth of writing to the first millennium of the modern era, this book demonstrates that Hebrew scribes used previous literature to establish a national identity, and that gospel scribes borrowed heavily from Homer to create epic legends around the person of Jesus. Lords of the Scrolls analyzes ancient literary sources to show how biblical and gospel scribes borrowed and imitated themes from earlier literature to create heroic legends around Hebrew figures and Jesus. Comparisons between the Epic of Gilgamesh; Enuma Elish; Canaanite, Egyptian, and Greek legends; Homeric epics; the histories of Herodotus; and selected biblical and gospel passages reveal thematic and literary similarities. Tracing literary classics from the birth of writing to the first millennium of the modern era, this book demonstrates that Hebrew scribes used previous literature to establish a national identity, and that gospel scribes borrowed heavily from Homer to create epic legends around the person of Jesus. A Partial Chronology xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii List of Abbreviations xix Introduction 1(10) PART I VINTAGE SCRIPTURES The Narrative Tradition 11(26) The Magic of Writing 20(3) Myths as Origins of the Narrative Tradition 23(8) Lords of the Scrolls: Scribes of God 31(6) Words of God, Words of Men 37(16) The Biblical Tradition 37(4) The Septuagint and Vulgate 41(1) The Names of God in the Bible 42(3) Ethnocentrism: Fear of the Gentile 45(8) Middle Eastern Divinities and Prophets 53(20) Babylonian Deities 55(2) Canaanite Deities: Destiny, El and Baal 57(4) Selected Middle Eastern Divinities 61(3) Zoroaster (628 BCE-551 BCE) 64(9) Creation and Genesis 73(20) Enuma Elish: The Babylonian Creation Myth 75(1) Male and Female: The Birth of Humans 76(3) The Garden: Trees and Knowledge 79(4) The Serpent and the Maiden 83(6) Parallels between Gilgamesh and Genesis 89(4) Cain and Abel 93(12) Gilgamesh and Endiku 93(1) Osiris and Seth 94(1) Catal Huyuk 95(6) Farmers and Shepherds: The Allegorical Interpretation 101(4) The Flood 105(16) Noah and His Sons 107(8) Flood Stories 115(2) The Naming of Ancestors 117(1) The Tower of Babel 118(3) Abraham, First of the Patriarchs 121(16) Name Calling 122(1) Covenants and Sacrifice 123(4) Rebecca and Jacob 127(2) Sumerians and Semites 129(2) Sodom and Early Bronze Age Cities 131(3) Land and Foreskin 134(3) Esau, Jacob and Joseph 137(18) Isaac and the Blessing 139(1) Dream On: Jacob and Herodotus 140(3) Jacob's Return 143(2) Egypt: The Legacy of Civilization 145(3) Juda: An Interruption in Genesis 148(1) Joseph in Egypt 149(2) Conclusions to Genesis 151(4) Exodus and Egyptian Biblical Themes 155(26) Sinai 157(2) Law and Order: Hammurabi and Solon 159(5) Akhenaten, Founder of Monotheism 164(3) Moses 167(5) The Golden Calf 172(9) PART II: CHRISTIAN LITERARY ORIGINS The Manufactured Jesus: Evidence and Mystery 181(30) Stoicism 182(1) Parallel Stoic and Gospel Sayings 183(7) The Essenes 190(1) Names and Designations 191(4) Birth, Ministry and Mission 195(5) The Halo Effect 200(2) Death and Resurrection 202(9) Greek Influence on Scripture 211(26) Pythagoras, Orpheus, & the Eleusian Mysteries 215(4) Ulysses and Jesus 219(4) Socrates and Plato 223(2) Epictetus (50--138 CE) 225(1) Philo of Alexandria (c.20 BCE--50 CE) 226(4) Justin Martyr (c. 100--165 CE) 230(1) Clement of Alexandria (c. 150--215 CE) 231(3) Plotinus (205--270 CE) 234(3) Cyrus, Mithras and Jesus 237(10) Parallels between Cyrus and Jesus 237(2) Mithras, The Bull-Slayer 239(5) Parallels between Mithras and Jesus 244(3) Gnosticism 247(12) Hindu Roots 254(1) Modern Gnostic Movements 255(4) Christianity and First Century Ideologies 259(22) Paul and the Invention of Christianity 261(4) The First Century: Political Turmoil 265(8) The Gospels: Origins and Themes 273(8) Christianity in the Second and Third Centuries 281(22) Acts of the Apostles 281(3) Irenaeus (c. 140-200 CE) 284(1) Literary Fragments from Canaan and Egypt 285(3) The 2nd Century CE: Celsus and Origen (c. 185--254 CE) 288(3) The 3rd Century: Constantine and Christianity 291(8) Mani and Manichaeism 299(4) Arius, Athanasius, and Augustine 303(16) Arius (c. 256--336 CE) and Arianism 304(4) Athanasius (297--373) 308(4) Augustine (354--430): The Christian Neo-Platonist 312(7) Epilogue 319(8) Endnotes 327(36) Glossary of Selected Terms 363(2) References 365(20) Index 385